Beowulf: Post-Reading Analysis
Lesson Objectives: Analyze symbols in Beowulf and their connections to other works; Examine Tone and word-choice in Beowulf; Analyze and Evaluate Narrator Point of View and Create a short composition using various POV; Revisit the significance of Beowulf in modern literature, film, and electronic media.
Assignment Preview: Complete 15-Minute Quick Write (on this page); Complete Analysis Quiz
Symbols in Beowulf
Swords
Literature nerds freak out about Beowulf for a zillion reasons, but one of those reasons is the fact that swords in Beowulf aren't—we repeat, aren't—a phallic symbol of total manly force. These swords are actually kind of... useless. There are several different famous swords in Beowulf—so many, in fact, that you might have trouble keeping them straight.
First, there's the sword that Hrothgar gives Beowulf after he kills Grendel (1022).
Second, there's Hrunting, the sword that Unferth lends to Beowulf to fight Grendel's mother (1458). Unfortunately, Hrunting fails to do any damage to the monster, so Beowulf grabs another sword from her horde of treasure (1557).
This third sword decapitates her, but the blade melts when it touches her poisonous blood. After he brings the hilt back to the surface, Hrothgar discovers it is covered in engravings of the great flood and destruction of the giants:
Hrothgar spoke; he examined the hilt, the relic of old times. It was engraved all over and showed how war first came into the world and the flood destroyed the tribe of giants. They suffered a terrible severance from the Lord; the Almighty made the waters rise, drowned them in the deluge for retribution. (1687-1693)
Fourth, there's a gem-studded sword that King Hygelac gives Beowulf to celebrate his great deeds (2193). We can probably assume that this is the sword called Naegling, which breaks when Beowulf tries to use it to kill the dragon (2680).
There are a few other swords in the story here and there, but these four are the most important ones—to recap: Hrothgar's gift, Hrunting, the sword with the engraved hilt, and Naegling.
That leaves us with two questions: why are there so many different swords in the epic, and why do they so often fail to harm the enemy? (And nope, we really don't think the answer is just that swords are phallic symbols.) Well, there are many different swords in the epic for a pretty obvious reason—in a warrior culture, weapons are going to be pretty important, and there are a lot of them around. There are also different weapons for different purposes, and sometimes one sword can succeed where another fails, depending its quality and its history. Makes sense, right?
But the really strange thing in Beowulf is that, frequently, swords don't do their job. Hrunting won't cut Grendel's mother; Naegling snaps when Beowulf swings it at the dragon; the sword with the engraved hilt melts in Grendel's blood. We're getting an inkling that the poet wants to remind us of the futility of battle.
It also seems that Beowulf does better when he uses his own body strength against the monsters around him, instead of weapons, which are almost like cheating because they give him an artificial advantage:
"I have heard moreover that the monster scorns in his reckless way to use weapons; therefore, to heighten Hygelac's fame and gladden his heart, I hereby renounce sword and the shelter of the broad shield, the heavy war-board: hand-to-hand is how it will be, a life-and-death fight with the fiend." (433-440)
Alternatively, at one point, the narrator suggests that Beowulf is so strong that his mighty strokes break blades in half, so perhaps Beowulf's heroism is greater than mere weapons could make it.
Bodies of Water
We can't say that we were surprised when an epic poem set in Scandinavia—land of the polar bear plunge, lake houses, and more herring than you can shake a stick at—was full of H20.
But we didn't expect quite so much uber-important water.
There are a bunch of important scenes involving different bodies of water in Beowulf—the dangerous sea-crossing that Beowulf and his warriors undertake to go from Geatland to Denmark; the swimming contest between Beowulf and Breca and the sea monsters they had to fight; the bloodstained lake, or "mere," where Grendel's mother lives in an underwater cave; and the seaside cliffs where Beowulf slays the dragon—and meets his doom. Why so much water? And why does the water always seem to be associated with, well, really dangerous things?
The easiest answer is that the medieval Scandinavians were a seafaring people. After all, that's part of the reason that the Anglo-Saxons were telling the story of Beowulf centuries later in England—because their Scandinavian and Germanic ancestors had sailed across the sea to colonize Britain.
As a member of a seagoing tribe, Beowulf is familiar with the sea, and also with its dangers. Of course, because Beowulf is an epic, the mundane dangers of the sea—getting swept overboard, getting lost, running out of food and water—are replaced by fantastic dangers, like sea monsters.
But the principle is the same. Grendel's mother, in her cave beneath a stagnant lake of bloodstained water, represents the uncertain danger lurking in any watery expedition. Later in the epic, Beowulf's followers will push the carcass of the dragon he slays over the cliff into the water to dispose of it, returning a monster to the place it seems to belong, the dangerous, capricious sea.
And the barrow that Beowulf asks Wiglaf to build for him is not just a monument to his memory—it's a monument that can be seen on the coast by men sailing on the sea:
"Order my troop to construct a barrow on a headland on the coast, after my pyre has cooled. It will loom on the horizon at Hronesness and be a reminder among my people – so that in coming times crews under sail will call it Beowulf's Barrow, as they steer ships across the wide and shrouded waters." (2802-2808)
In other words, it's a reminder of the strength and success of a hero that you can see and take courage from even in the middle of a dangerous, uncertain world.
Literature nerds freak out about Beowulf for a zillion reasons, but one of those reasons is the fact that swords in Beowulf aren't—we repeat, aren't—a phallic symbol of total manly force. These swords are actually kind of... useless. There are several different famous swords in Beowulf—so many, in fact, that you might have trouble keeping them straight.
First, there's the sword that Hrothgar gives Beowulf after he kills Grendel (1022).
Second, there's Hrunting, the sword that Unferth lends to Beowulf to fight Grendel's mother (1458). Unfortunately, Hrunting fails to do any damage to the monster, so Beowulf grabs another sword from her horde of treasure (1557).
This third sword decapitates her, but the blade melts when it touches her poisonous blood. After he brings the hilt back to the surface, Hrothgar discovers it is covered in engravings of the great flood and destruction of the giants:
Hrothgar spoke; he examined the hilt, the relic of old times. It was engraved all over and showed how war first came into the world and the flood destroyed the tribe of giants. They suffered a terrible severance from the Lord; the Almighty made the waters rise, drowned them in the deluge for retribution. (1687-1693)
Fourth, there's a gem-studded sword that King Hygelac gives Beowulf to celebrate his great deeds (2193). We can probably assume that this is the sword called Naegling, which breaks when Beowulf tries to use it to kill the dragon (2680).
There are a few other swords in the story here and there, but these four are the most important ones—to recap: Hrothgar's gift, Hrunting, the sword with the engraved hilt, and Naegling.
That leaves us with two questions: why are there so many different swords in the epic, and why do they so often fail to harm the enemy? (And nope, we really don't think the answer is just that swords are phallic symbols.) Well, there are many different swords in the epic for a pretty obvious reason—in a warrior culture, weapons are going to be pretty important, and there are a lot of them around. There are also different weapons for different purposes, and sometimes one sword can succeed where another fails, depending its quality and its history. Makes sense, right?
But the really strange thing in Beowulf is that, frequently, swords don't do their job. Hrunting won't cut Grendel's mother; Naegling snaps when Beowulf swings it at the dragon; the sword with the engraved hilt melts in Grendel's blood. We're getting an inkling that the poet wants to remind us of the futility of battle.
It also seems that Beowulf does better when he uses his own body strength against the monsters around him, instead of weapons, which are almost like cheating because they give him an artificial advantage:
"I have heard moreover that the monster scorns in his reckless way to use weapons; therefore, to heighten Hygelac's fame and gladden his heart, I hereby renounce sword and the shelter of the broad shield, the heavy war-board: hand-to-hand is how it will be, a life-and-death fight with the fiend." (433-440)
Alternatively, at one point, the narrator suggests that Beowulf is so strong that his mighty strokes break blades in half, so perhaps Beowulf's heroism is greater than mere weapons could make it.
Bodies of Water
We can't say that we were surprised when an epic poem set in Scandinavia—land of the polar bear plunge, lake houses, and more herring than you can shake a stick at—was full of H20.
But we didn't expect quite so much uber-important water.
There are a bunch of important scenes involving different bodies of water in Beowulf—the dangerous sea-crossing that Beowulf and his warriors undertake to go from Geatland to Denmark; the swimming contest between Beowulf and Breca and the sea monsters they had to fight; the bloodstained lake, or "mere," where Grendel's mother lives in an underwater cave; and the seaside cliffs where Beowulf slays the dragon—and meets his doom. Why so much water? And why does the water always seem to be associated with, well, really dangerous things?
The easiest answer is that the medieval Scandinavians were a seafaring people. After all, that's part of the reason that the Anglo-Saxons were telling the story of Beowulf centuries later in England—because their Scandinavian and Germanic ancestors had sailed across the sea to colonize Britain.
As a member of a seagoing tribe, Beowulf is familiar with the sea, and also with its dangers. Of course, because Beowulf is an epic, the mundane dangers of the sea—getting swept overboard, getting lost, running out of food and water—are replaced by fantastic dangers, like sea monsters.
But the principle is the same. Grendel's mother, in her cave beneath a stagnant lake of bloodstained water, represents the uncertain danger lurking in any watery expedition. Later in the epic, Beowulf's followers will push the carcass of the dragon he slays over the cliff into the water to dispose of it, returning a monster to the place it seems to belong, the dangerous, capricious sea.
And the barrow that Beowulf asks Wiglaf to build for him is not just a monument to his memory—it's a monument that can be seen on the coast by men sailing on the sea:
"Order my troop to construct a barrow on a headland on the coast, after my pyre has cooled. It will loom on the horizon at Hronesness and be a reminder among my people – so that in coming times crews under sail will call it Beowulf's Barrow, as they steer ships across the wide and shrouded waters." (2802-2808)
In other words, it's a reminder of the strength and success of a hero that you can see and take courage from even in the middle of a dangerous, uncertain world.
The Mead Hall
It's not unusual for architecture in literature to have massive symbolic clout: churches and mosques symbolize religion, schools symbolize education, and Grandma's house symbolizes the place where the Big Bad Wolf will try to eat you.
But there are few literary architectural symbols as completely kickin' as the mead halls of Beowulf.
In the translation of Beowulf that we've used, King Hrothgar's mead-hall is called Heorot, which is its name in Old English. Translated into modern English, "Heorot" means "hart," which is a male deer or a stag.
Hrothgar's lavish, wealthy hall—where his warriors gather to drink and feast and where he holds court —is named for this proud, majestic animal. And at first everything's peachy keen:
Inside Heorot there was nothing but friendship. The Shielding nation was not yet familiar with feud and betrayal. (1016-8)
Of course, deer aren't just any kind of animal: they're prey animals, hunted by men and other predators. Perhaps this is a little hint to us that Hrothgar's hall is destined to be attacked, again and again, by the (un)friendly local man-eating demon, Grendel.
Heorot, along with the unnamed mead-hall back in Geatland where King Hygelac holds sway, represents the brotherhood and unity of the warriors in the tribe. Each mead-hall becomes a symbol of power, a place for kings to display their gold, jewels, armor, wealth, and even their manpower—the number of "thanes," or followers, that they can boast. The mead-hall doubles as a location for feasts and as sleeping quarters for the warriors.
Beowulf and his men go to Heorot first for a formal audience with Hrothgar, second for a feast and wild party, and third, at the end of the night, for a place to bed down with their armor and weapons right beside them, ready for action. Each mead-hall is a palace, a cafeteria, a bar, and a barracks all in one—a visible symbol of the intense life of formality, excess, and brutal warfare that medieval warriors led.
It's not unusual for architecture in literature to have massive symbolic clout: churches and mosques symbolize religion, schools symbolize education, and Grandma's house symbolizes the place where the Big Bad Wolf will try to eat you.
But there are few literary architectural symbols as completely kickin' as the mead halls of Beowulf.
In the translation of Beowulf that we've used, King Hrothgar's mead-hall is called Heorot, which is its name in Old English. Translated into modern English, "Heorot" means "hart," which is a male deer or a stag.
Hrothgar's lavish, wealthy hall—where his warriors gather to drink and feast and where he holds court —is named for this proud, majestic animal. And at first everything's peachy keen:
Inside Heorot there was nothing but friendship. The Shielding nation was not yet familiar with feud and betrayal. (1016-8)
Of course, deer aren't just any kind of animal: they're prey animals, hunted by men and other predators. Perhaps this is a little hint to us that Hrothgar's hall is destined to be attacked, again and again, by the (un)friendly local man-eating demon, Grendel.
Heorot, along with the unnamed mead-hall back in Geatland where King Hygelac holds sway, represents the brotherhood and unity of the warriors in the tribe. Each mead-hall becomes a symbol of power, a place for kings to display their gold, jewels, armor, wealth, and even their manpower—the number of "thanes," or followers, that they can boast. The mead-hall doubles as a location for feasts and as sleeping quarters for the warriors.
Beowulf and his men go to Heorot first for a formal audience with Hrothgar, second for a feast and wild party, and third, at the end of the night, for a place to bed down with their armor and weapons right beside them, ready for action. Each mead-hall is a palace, a cafeteria, a bar, and a barracks all in one—a visible symbol of the intense life of formality, excess, and brutal warfare that medieval warriors led.
Tone
The narrator of Beowulf uses several different tones over the course of this long epic poem, but throughout everything he is always super formal. This isn't a chummy, chatty, nudge-you-in-the-ribs kind of narrator. Instead, everything in Beowulf seems to be spoken with grave, calm, even stiff formality. We see this in the characters as well as in the narrator; even Beowulf himself announces his own name through an elaborate speech about his deeds:
"So every elder and experienced councilman among my people supported my resolve to come here to you, King Hrothgar, because all knew of my awesome strength. They had seen me boltered in the blood of the enemies when I battled and bound five beasts, raided a troll-next and in the night-sea slaughtered sea-brutes. I have suffered extremes and avenged the Geats (their enemies brought it upon themselves, I devastated them). Now I mean to be a match for Grendel, settle the outcome in single combat." (415-426)
Although his tone is always formal, the narrator of Beowulf does shift between three more specific tones, depending on what's happening at the moment in the story. When Beowulf or someone else is behaving especially heroically, the narrator becomes laudatory, or praising:
Thus Beowulf bore himself with valour; he was formidable in battle yet behaved with honour and took no advantage. (2177-2179)
In fact, we'd go so far as to say that this narrator does some real boot-licking. To listen to the narrator, you'd think that Beowulf was just the most awesome, honorable, powerful hero who ever lived—which is exactly what epics are supposed to be about.
But when Beowulf starts losing, the narrator becomes mournful, lamenting the hero's defeat and the suffering of the people, or pious, reminding us that all heroism is dependent on God's favor.
"So every elder and experienced councilman among my people supported my resolve to come here to you, King Hrothgar, because all knew of my awesome strength. They had seen me boltered in the blood of the enemies when I battled and bound five beasts, raided a troll-next and in the night-sea slaughtered sea-brutes. I have suffered extremes and avenged the Geats (their enemies brought it upon themselves, I devastated them). Now I mean to be a match for Grendel, settle the outcome in single combat." (415-426)
Although his tone is always formal, the narrator of Beowulf does shift between three more specific tones, depending on what's happening at the moment in the story. When Beowulf or someone else is behaving especially heroically, the narrator becomes laudatory, or praising:
Thus Beowulf bore himself with valour; he was formidable in battle yet behaved with honour and took no advantage. (2177-2179)
In fact, we'd go so far as to say that this narrator does some real boot-licking. To listen to the narrator, you'd think that Beowulf was just the most awesome, honorable, powerful hero who ever lived—which is exactly what epics are supposed to be about.
But when Beowulf starts losing, the narrator becomes mournful, lamenting the hero's defeat and the suffering of the people, or pious, reminding us that all heroism is dependent on God's favor.
Narrator Point of View
The 4 Types of Point of View
Here are the four primary POV types in fiction:
Third Person (Omniscient)
The narrator of Beowulf is one of those godlike narrators who sees everything and can skip around between different characters and between the past, present, and future. In fact, you might get a little bit frustrated with this, because the narrator often spoils the story for you. More than once, the narrator steps aside to remind you that Beowulf may seem like an invincible hero, but eventually God is going to decree that he'll be defeated.
Thanks for spoiling it, narrator.
At other times, the narrator jumps back in time to explain why things are unfolding as they are. For example, when Beowulf chooses to fight Grendel in hand-to-hand combat, the narrator explains that this is lucky, because Grendel is impervious to edged weapons like swords. That's not something that anyone in the story actually knows—in fact, none of them even find out. But the narrator gives us this extra explanation about some of the supernatural elements in the story so that we know more than the characters do.
The narrator also uses flashbacks to explain the history between different men, such as Beowulf and Hrothgar, or different tribes, such as the feuding Geats and Swedes. In fact, this kind of narration makes it easier for us to understand Beowulf as we read it, because the narrator is always making connections between past history and the battles Beowulf is fighting at any given moment.
Here are the four primary POV types in fiction:
- First person point of view. First person is when “I” am telling the story. The character is in the story, relating his or her experiences directly.
- Second person point of view. The story is told to “you.” This POV is not common in fiction, but it’s still good to know (it is common in nonfiction).
- Third person point of view, limited. The story is about “he” or “she.” This is the most common point of view in commercial fiction. The narrator is outside of the story and relating the experiences of a character.
- Third person point of view, omniscient. The story is still about “he” or “she,” but the narrator has full access to the thoughts and experiences of all characters in the story.
Third Person (Omniscient)
The narrator of Beowulf is one of those godlike narrators who sees everything and can skip around between different characters and between the past, present, and future. In fact, you might get a little bit frustrated with this, because the narrator often spoils the story for you. More than once, the narrator steps aside to remind you that Beowulf may seem like an invincible hero, but eventually God is going to decree that he'll be defeated.
Thanks for spoiling it, narrator.
At other times, the narrator jumps back in time to explain why things are unfolding as they are. For example, when Beowulf chooses to fight Grendel in hand-to-hand combat, the narrator explains that this is lucky, because Grendel is impervious to edged weapons like swords. That's not something that anyone in the story actually knows—in fact, none of them even find out. But the narrator gives us this extra explanation about some of the supernatural elements in the story so that we know more than the characters do.
The narrator also uses flashbacks to explain the history between different men, such as Beowulf and Hrothgar, or different tribes, such as the feuding Geats and Swedes. In fact, this kind of narration makes it easier for us to understand Beowulf as we read it, because the narrator is always making connections between past history and the battles Beowulf is fighting at any given moment.
Point of View Activity
Using a single point of view you’ve never used before, write a brief story about a teenager who has just discovered he or she has superpowers.
Write for fifteen minutes. When your time is up, post your practice below.
Write for fifteen minutes. When your time is up, post your practice below.
Legacy of Beowulf: J.R.R. Tolkien and the Fantasy Genre
Beowulf had a profound impact on the father of the fantasy genre, J.R.R. Tolkien. He was professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford University, translated his own version of Beowulf (which was released in the last few years), and directly referenced the epic in his works (particularly, The Hobbit).
It was from Beowulf where "orcneas" is listed amongst other monsters, and where Tolkien "borrowed" the word "orc" for his large goblin-like monsters. In fact, the entire ending of The Hobbit appears to be a retelling of the ending of Beowulf from the point of view of the thief of the dragon's horde (Bilbo Baggins being the "burglar").
J.R.R. Tolkien would go on to inspire countless authors, composers, film makers, artists, gamers, and readers. Building on the epics of Beowulf and others like the Finnish epic The Kalevala, along with fairy stories (which before Tolkien, where generally seen as children's literature), Tolkien inspired a Fantasy Genre that would be for children, teens, and adults alike. So in that way, Beowulf is the Grandfather--or Great Grandfather of the Fantasy Genre.
It was from Beowulf where "orcneas" is listed amongst other monsters, and where Tolkien "borrowed" the word "orc" for his large goblin-like monsters. In fact, the entire ending of The Hobbit appears to be a retelling of the ending of Beowulf from the point of view of the thief of the dragon's horde (Bilbo Baggins being the "burglar").
J.R.R. Tolkien would go on to inspire countless authors, composers, film makers, artists, gamers, and readers. Building on the epics of Beowulf and others like the Finnish epic The Kalevala, along with fairy stories (which before Tolkien, where generally seen as children's literature), Tolkien inspired a Fantasy Genre that would be for children, teens, and adults alike. So in that way, Beowulf is the Grandfather--or Great Grandfather of the Fantasy Genre.
Louisiana State Standards
This unit will cover the following Louisiana State Standards:
Reading Standards for Literature
The following standards offer a focus for instruction each year and help ensure that students gain adequate exposure to a range of texts and tasks. Rigor is also infused through the requirement that students read increasingly complex texts through the grades. Students advancing through the grades are expected to meet each year’s grade-specific standards and retain or further develop skills and understandings mastered in preceding grades.
Key Ideas and Details
RL.11–12.1. Cite strong, thorough, and relevant textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain.
RL.11–12.2. Determine two or more themes or central ideas of a text and analyze their development over the course of the text, including how they interact and build on one another to produce a complex account; provide an objective summary of the text.
RL.11–12.3. Analyze the impact of the author’s choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of a story or drama, including how the author develops character and setting, builds the plot and subplots, creates themes, and develops mood/atmosphere.
Craft and Structure
RL.11–12.4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in the text, including figurative and connotative meanings; analyze the impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone, including words with multiple meanings or language that is particularly fresh, engaging, or beautiful. (Include Shakespeare as well as other authors.)
RL.11–12.5. Analyze how an author’s choices concerning how to structure specific parts of a text (e.g., the choice of where to begin or end a story, the choice to provide a comedic or tragic resolution) contribute to its overall structure and meaning as well as its aesthetic impact.
RL.11–12.6. Analyze a case in which grasping point of view requires distinguishing what is directly stated in a text from what is really meant (e.g., satire, sarcasm, irony, or understatement).
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas
RL.11–12.7. Analyze multiple interpretations of a story, drama, or poem (e.g., recorded or live production of a play or recorded novel or poetry), evaluating how each version interprets the source text.
RL.11–12.9. Demonstrate knowledge of foundational works of U.S. and world literature, including how two or more texts from the same period treat similar themes and topics. Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity
RL.11–12.10. By the end of grade 11, read and comprehend literature, including stories, dramas, and poems, in the grades 11–workplace/postsecondary text complexity proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. By the end of grade 12, read and comprehend literature, including stories, dramas, and poems, at the high end of the grades 11– workplace/postsecondary text complexity independently and proficiently.
Writing Standards
The following standards offer a focus for instruction each year to help ensure that students gain adequate mastery of a range of skills and applications. Each year in their writing, students should demonstrate increasing sophistication in all aspects of language use, from vocabulary and syntax to the development and organization of ideas, and they should address increasingly demanding content and sources. Students advancing through the grades are expected to meet each year’s grade-specific standards and retain or further develop skills and understandings mastered in preceding grades.
Text Types and Purposes
W.11–12.1. Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.
a. Introduce precise, knowledgeable claim(s), establish the significance of the claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that logically sequences claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.
b. Develop claim(s) and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying the most relevant evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both in a manner that anticipates the audience’s knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.
c. Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims. d. Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing. e. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented.
W.11–12.2. Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content.
a. Introduce a topic; organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element builds on that which precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension.
b. Develop the topic thoroughly by selecting the most significant and relevant facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audience’s knowledge of the topic.
c. Use appropriate and varied transitions and syntax to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships among complex ideas and concepts.
d. Use precise language, domain-specific vocabulary, and techniques such as metaphor, simile, and analogy to manage the complexity of the topic.
e. Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing.
f. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation presented (e.g., articulating implications or the significance of the topic).
W.11–12.3. Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences.
a. Engage and orient the reader by setting out a problem, situation, or observation and its significance, establishing one or multiple point(s) of view, and introducing a narrator and/or characters; create a smooth progression of experiences or events.
b. Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, description, reflection, and multiple plot lines, to develop experiences, mood, tone, events, and/or characters.
c. Use a variety of techniques to sequence events so that they build on one another to create a coherent whole and build toward a particular tone and outcome (e.g., a sense of mystery, suspense, growth, or resolution).
d. Use precise words and phrases, telling details, and figurative and sensory language to convey a vivid picture of the experiences, events, setting, mood, tone and/or characters.
e. Provide a conclusion (when appropriate to the genre) that follows from and reflects on what is experienced, observed, or resolved over the course of the narrative.
Production and Distribution of Writing
W.11–12.4. Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.
W.11–12.5. Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on addressing what is most significant for a specific purpose and audience.
W.11–12.6. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products in response to ongoing feedback, including new arguments or information.
Range of Writing
W.11–12.10. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences.
Conventions of Standard English
L.11–12.1. Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking.
a. Apply the understanding that usage is a matter of convention, can change over time, and is sometimes contested. b. Resolve issues of complex or contested usage, consulting references (e.g., Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage, Garner’s Modern American Usage) as needed.
L.11–12.2. Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing.
a. Observe hyphenation conventions.
b. Spell correctly.
Knowledge of Language
L.11–12.3. Apply knowledge of language to understand how language functions in different contexts, to make effective choices for meaning or style, and to comprehend more fully when reading or listening.
a. Vary syntax for effect, consulting references (e.g., Tufte’s Artful Sentences) for guidance as needed; apply an understanding of syntax to the study of complex texts when reading. Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
L.11–12.4. Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and phrases based on grades 11–12 reading and content, choosing flexibly from a range of strategies.
a. Use context (e.g., the overall meaning of a sentence, paragraph, or text; a word’s position or function in a sentence) as a clue to the meaning of a word or phrase.
b. Identify and correctly use patterns of word changes that indicate different meanings or parts of speech (e.g., conceive, conception, conceivable).
c. Consult general and specialized reference materials (e.g., dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses), both print and digital, to find the pronunciation of a word or determine or clarify its precise meaning, its part of speech, its etymology, or its standard usage.
d. Verify the preliminary determination of the meaning of a word or phrase (e.g., by checking the inferred meaning in context or in a dictionary).
L.11–12.5. Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuances in word meanings.
a. Interpret figures of speech (e.g., hyperbole, paradox) in context and analyze their role in the text.
b. Analyze nuances in the meaning of words with similar denotations.
L.11–12.6. Acquire and use accurately general academic and domain-specific words and phrases, sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening at the college and career readiness level; demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary knowledge when considering a word or phrase important to comprehension or expression.
Reading Standards for Literature
The following standards offer a focus for instruction each year and help ensure that students gain adequate exposure to a range of texts and tasks. Rigor is also infused through the requirement that students read increasingly complex texts through the grades. Students advancing through the grades are expected to meet each year’s grade-specific standards and retain or further develop skills and understandings mastered in preceding grades.
Key Ideas and Details
RL.11–12.1. Cite strong, thorough, and relevant textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain.
RL.11–12.2. Determine two or more themes or central ideas of a text and analyze their development over the course of the text, including how they interact and build on one another to produce a complex account; provide an objective summary of the text.
RL.11–12.3. Analyze the impact of the author’s choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of a story or drama, including how the author develops character and setting, builds the plot and subplots, creates themes, and develops mood/atmosphere.
Craft and Structure
RL.11–12.4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in the text, including figurative and connotative meanings; analyze the impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone, including words with multiple meanings or language that is particularly fresh, engaging, or beautiful. (Include Shakespeare as well as other authors.)
RL.11–12.5. Analyze how an author’s choices concerning how to structure specific parts of a text (e.g., the choice of where to begin or end a story, the choice to provide a comedic or tragic resolution) contribute to its overall structure and meaning as well as its aesthetic impact.
RL.11–12.6. Analyze a case in which grasping point of view requires distinguishing what is directly stated in a text from what is really meant (e.g., satire, sarcasm, irony, or understatement).
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas
RL.11–12.7. Analyze multiple interpretations of a story, drama, or poem (e.g., recorded or live production of a play or recorded novel or poetry), evaluating how each version interprets the source text.
RL.11–12.9. Demonstrate knowledge of foundational works of U.S. and world literature, including how two or more texts from the same period treat similar themes and topics. Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity
RL.11–12.10. By the end of grade 11, read and comprehend literature, including stories, dramas, and poems, in the grades 11–workplace/postsecondary text complexity proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. By the end of grade 12, read and comprehend literature, including stories, dramas, and poems, at the high end of the grades 11– workplace/postsecondary text complexity independently and proficiently.
Writing Standards
The following standards offer a focus for instruction each year to help ensure that students gain adequate mastery of a range of skills and applications. Each year in their writing, students should demonstrate increasing sophistication in all aspects of language use, from vocabulary and syntax to the development and organization of ideas, and they should address increasingly demanding content and sources. Students advancing through the grades are expected to meet each year’s grade-specific standards and retain or further develop skills and understandings mastered in preceding grades.
Text Types and Purposes
W.11–12.1. Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.
a. Introduce precise, knowledgeable claim(s), establish the significance of the claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that logically sequences claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.
b. Develop claim(s) and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying the most relevant evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both in a manner that anticipates the audience’s knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.
c. Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims. d. Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing. e. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented.
W.11–12.2. Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content.
a. Introduce a topic; organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element builds on that which precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension.
b. Develop the topic thoroughly by selecting the most significant and relevant facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audience’s knowledge of the topic.
c. Use appropriate and varied transitions and syntax to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships among complex ideas and concepts.
d. Use precise language, domain-specific vocabulary, and techniques such as metaphor, simile, and analogy to manage the complexity of the topic.
e. Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing.
f. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation presented (e.g., articulating implications or the significance of the topic).
W.11–12.3. Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences.
a. Engage and orient the reader by setting out a problem, situation, or observation and its significance, establishing one or multiple point(s) of view, and introducing a narrator and/or characters; create a smooth progression of experiences or events.
b. Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, description, reflection, and multiple plot lines, to develop experiences, mood, tone, events, and/or characters.
c. Use a variety of techniques to sequence events so that they build on one another to create a coherent whole and build toward a particular tone and outcome (e.g., a sense of mystery, suspense, growth, or resolution).
d. Use precise words and phrases, telling details, and figurative and sensory language to convey a vivid picture of the experiences, events, setting, mood, tone and/or characters.
e. Provide a conclusion (when appropriate to the genre) that follows from and reflects on what is experienced, observed, or resolved over the course of the narrative.
Production and Distribution of Writing
W.11–12.4. Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.
W.11–12.5. Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on addressing what is most significant for a specific purpose and audience.
W.11–12.6. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products in response to ongoing feedback, including new arguments or information.
Range of Writing
W.11–12.10. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences.
Conventions of Standard English
L.11–12.1. Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking.
a. Apply the understanding that usage is a matter of convention, can change over time, and is sometimes contested. b. Resolve issues of complex or contested usage, consulting references (e.g., Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage, Garner’s Modern American Usage) as needed.
L.11–12.2. Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing.
a. Observe hyphenation conventions.
b. Spell correctly.
Knowledge of Language
L.11–12.3. Apply knowledge of language to understand how language functions in different contexts, to make effective choices for meaning or style, and to comprehend more fully when reading or listening.
a. Vary syntax for effect, consulting references (e.g., Tufte’s Artful Sentences) for guidance as needed; apply an understanding of syntax to the study of complex texts when reading. Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
L.11–12.4. Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and phrases based on grades 11–12 reading and content, choosing flexibly from a range of strategies.
a. Use context (e.g., the overall meaning of a sentence, paragraph, or text; a word’s position or function in a sentence) as a clue to the meaning of a word or phrase.
b. Identify and correctly use patterns of word changes that indicate different meanings or parts of speech (e.g., conceive, conception, conceivable).
c. Consult general and specialized reference materials (e.g., dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses), both print and digital, to find the pronunciation of a word or determine or clarify its precise meaning, its part of speech, its etymology, or its standard usage.
d. Verify the preliminary determination of the meaning of a word or phrase (e.g., by checking the inferred meaning in context or in a dictionary).
L.11–12.5. Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuances in word meanings.
a. Interpret figures of speech (e.g., hyperbole, paradox) in context and analyze their role in the text.
b. Analyze nuances in the meaning of words with similar denotations.
L.11–12.6. Acquire and use accurately general academic and domain-specific words and phrases, sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening at the college and career readiness level; demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary knowledge when considering a word or phrase important to comprehension or expression.